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Read Online Slavery and the Meetinghouse: the Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820-1865.

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An overview Quaker history

The Religious Society of Friends began as a proto-evangelical Christian movement in England in the mid-17th century in Lancashire.[1] [two] Members are informally known equally Quakers, as they were said "to tremble in the style of the Lord". The move in its early on days faced strong opposition and persecution, but it continued to aggrandize across the British Isles and then in the Americas and Africa.

The Quakers, though few in numbers, have been influential in the history of reform. The colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn in 1682, as a prophylactic place for Quakers to live and practice their faith. Quakers have been a meaning office of the movements for the abolition of slavery, to promote equal rights for women, and peace. They have also promoted pedagogy and the humane treatment of prisoners and the mentally sick, through the founding or reforming of various institutions. Quaker entrepreneurs played a central function in forging the Industrial Revolution, particularly in England and Pennsylvania.

During the 19th century, Friends in the United States suffered a number of secessions, which resulted in the formation of different branches of the Religious Society of Friends.

George Trick and the Religious Society of Friends [edit]

When George Play a joke on was eleven, he wrote that God spoke to him virtually "keeping pure and being true-blue to God and man."[2] Subsequently being troubled when his friends asked him to drink alcohol with them at the historic period of nineteen, Fox spent the night in prayer and shortly afterwards, he left his home to search for spiritual satisfaction, which lasted iv years.[2] In his Journal, at age 23, he recorded the words:[two]

And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, and then that I had null outwardly, to help me, nor could tell what to do; and then, O then, I heard a vox which said 'At that place is one, fifty-fifty Christ Jesus, that tin can speak to thy status.' When I heard information technology, my heart did leap for joy. Then the Lord permit me see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give him all the glory. For all are concluded under sin, and close up in unbelief, as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence, who enlightens, and gives grace, religion, and power. Thus when God doth work, who shall let (hinder) it?[2]

At this time, Fox believed that he "found through faith in Jesus Christ the total assurance of salvation."[2] Fox began to spread his evangelical Christian bulletin and his emphasis on "the necessity of an inward transformation of middle", as well as the possibility of Christian perfection, drew opposition from English clergy and laity.[2] Fox wrote that "The professors [professing Christians] were in a rage, all pleading for sin and imperfection, and could non suffer to hear talk of perfection, or of a holy and sinless life."[2] All the same, in the mid-1600s, many people became attracted to Fox'due south preaching and his followers became known equally Friends.[2] By 1660, the Quakers grew to 35,000.[2] Well known early advocates of Quaker Christianity included Isaac Penington, Robert Barclay, Thomas Ellwood, William Penn and Margaret Vicious.[2]

Quakerism pulled together groups of disparate Seekers that formed the Religious Society of Friends post-obit 1647.[ citation needed ] This time of upheaval and social and political unrest chosen all institutions into question, so George Pull a fast one on and his leading disciples—James Nayler, Richard Hubberthorne, Margaret Fell, as well as numerous others—targeted "scattered Baptists", disillusioned soldiers, and restless common folk every bit potential Quakers. Confrontations with the established churches and its leaders and those who held ability at the local level assured those who spoke for the new sect a ready hearing as they insisted that God could speak to boilerplate people, through his risen son, without the need to heed churchmen, pay tithes, or engage in deceitful practices. They found fertile basis in northern England in 1651 and 1652, building a base of operations there from which they moved south, beginning to London and then beyond. In the early days the groups remained scattered, but gradually they consolidated in the north—the start meeting being created in Durham in 1653—to provide fiscal support to the missionaries who had gone southward and presently abroad. Before long they seemed a potential threat to the nobility of the Cromwellian state. Fifty-fifty absorbing its leaders failed to slow the motility, instead giving them a new audition in the courts of the nation.[3]

Nayler's sign [edit]

In 1656, a popular Quaker minister, James Nayler, went beyond the standard behavior of Quakers when he rode into Bristol on a horse in the pouring rain, accompanied by a handful of men and women saying "Holy, holy, holy" and strewing their garments on the ground, imitating Jesus'due south entry into Jerusalem. While this was apparently an attempt to emphasize that the "Calorie-free of Christ" was in every person, most observers believed that he and his followers believed Nayler to be Jesus Christ. The participants were arrested by the government and handed over to Parliament, where they were tried. Parliament was sufficiently incensed by Nayler'south heterodox views that they punished him savagely and sent him back to Bristol to jail indefinitely.[4] This was especially bad for the movement's respectability in the eyes of the Puritan rulers because some considered Nayler (and not Fox, who was in jail at the fourth dimension) to exist the actual leader of the move. Many historians see this event as a turning bespeak in early Quaker history because many other leaders, especially Fox, fabricated efforts to increase the authorization of the grouping, so as to forestall similar behaviour. This effort culminated in 1666 with the "Testimony from the Brethren", aimed at those who, in its ain words, despised a dominion "without which we ... cannot exist kept holy and inviolable"; information technology continued the centralizing procedure that began with the Nayler affair and was aimed at isolating whatever separatists who still lurked in the Social club. Trick also established women's meetings for subject and gave them an of import office in overseeing marriages, which served both to isolate the opposition and fuel discontent with the new departures. In the 1660s and 1670s Play a trick on himself travelled the country setting upward a more formal construction of monthly (local) and quarterly (regional) meetings, a construction that is still used today.[5]

Other early controversies [edit]

The Guild was rent by controversy in the 1660s and 1670s because of these tendencies. Offset, John Perrot, previously a respected minister and missionary, raised questions about whether men should uncover their heads when some other Friend prayed in meeting. He also opposed a stock-still schedule for meetings for worship. Soon this small question broadened into an attack on the power of those at the centre. Afterwards, during the 1670s, William Rogers of Bristol and a group from Lancashire, whose spokesmen John Story and John Wilkinson were both respected leaders, led a schism. They disagreed with the heightening influence of women and centralizing potency among Friends closer to London. In 1666, a group of about a dozen leaders, led past Richard Farnworth (Play a joke on was absent, beingness in prison in Scarborough), gathered in London and issued a certificate that they styled "A Testimony of the Brethren". It fix rules to maintain the adept social club that they wanted to run across among adherents and excluded separatists from holding part and prohibited them from travelling lest they sow errors. Looking to the future, they appear that say-so in the Society rested with them.[half dozen] By the terminate of the century, these leaders were nearly all now expressionless but London's authority had been established; the influence of dissident groups had been generally overcome.

Women and equality [edit]

One of their most radical innovations was a more nearly equal role for women, as Taylor (2001) shows. Despite the survival of strong patriarchal elements, Friends believed in the spiritual equality of women, who were immune to accept a far more active role than had ordinarily existed before the emergence of radical ceremonious state of war sects. Among many female Quaker writers and preachers of the 1650s to 1670s were Margaret Fell, Dorothy White, Hester Biddle, Sarah Blackborow, Rebecca Travers and Alice Curwen.[7] Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, even so, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women'due south meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more than pocket-sized, feminine pursuits. Writers such as Dorcas Dole and Elizabeth Stirredge turned to subjects seen equally more than feminine in that period.[eight] Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such every bit allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not exist attacked every bit immoral. The Quakers continued to encounter openly, even in the dangerous year of 1683. Heavy fines were exacted and, as in before years, women were treated equally severely as men by the authorities.[9]

Persecution in England [edit]

In 1650 George Pull a fast one on was imprisoned for the first time. Over and over he was thrown in prison house during the 1650s through the 1670s. Other Quakers followed him to prison as well. The charge was causing a disturbance; at other times information technology was blasphemy.[10]

Ii acts of Parliament made information technology particularly difficult for Friends. The starting time was the Quaker Act of 1662[xi] which made it illegal to decline to accept the Oath of Fidelity to the Crown. Those refusing to swear an oath of fidelity to the Crown were not allowed to hold any secret meetings and as Friends believed it was wrong to accept whatsoever "superstitious" oath their freedom of religious expression was certainly compromised by this law. The second was the Conventicle Human activity of 1664 which reaffirmed that the holding of whatever hush-hush coming together by those who did not pledge allegiance to the Crown was a crime. Despite these laws, Friends connected to meet openly.[12] They believed that by doing so, they were testifying to the strength of their convictions and were willing to run a risk punishment for doing what they believed to be right.

The catastrophe of official persecution in England [edit]

Under James Two of England persecution practically ceased.[13] James issued a Announcement of Indulgence in 1687 and 1688, and it was widely held that William Penn had been its author.[14]

In 1689 the Toleration Act was passed. It allowed for freedom of conscience and prevented persecution by making information technology illegal to disturb everyone else from worship. Thus Quakers became tolerated though nonetheless not widely understood or accepted.

Netherlands [edit]

Quakers first arrived in the Netherlands in 1655 when William Ames and Margaret Fell's nephew, William Caton, took up residence in Amsterdam.[15] The Netherlands were seen by Quakers as a refuge from persecution in England and they perceived themselves to accept affinities with the Dutch Collegiants and also with the Mennonites who had sought sanctuary there. However, English Quakers encountered persecution no different from that they had hoped to leave behind. Eventually, however, Dutch converts to Quakerism were made, and with Amsterdam as a base of operations, preaching tours began within the Netherlands and to neighboring states. In 1661, Ames and Caton visited the County Palatine of the Rhine and met with Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine at Heidelberg.

William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania, who had a Dutch mother, visited the Netherlands in 1671 and saw, kickoff mitt, the persecution of the Emden Quakers.[16] He returned in 1677 with George Fox and Robert Barclay and at Walta Castle, their religious community at Wieuwerd in Friesland, he unsuccessfully tried to convert the similarly minded Labadists to Quakerism. They too journeyed on the Rhine to Frankfurt, accompanied by the Amsterdam Quaker January Claus who translated for them. His blood brother, Jacob Claus, had Quaker books translated and published in Dutch and he also produced a map of Philadelphia, the capital of Penn'south Holy Experiment.

The attraction of a life free from persecution in the New World led to a gradual Dutch Quaker migration. English Quakers in Rotterdam were permitted to transport people and cargo by ship to English language colonies without brake and throughout the 18th century many Dutch Quakers emigrated to Pennsylvania.[sixteen] At that place were an estimated 500 Quaker families in Amsterdam in 1710[17] but by 1797 there were only 7 Quakers left in the city. Isabella Maria Gouda (1745–1832), a granddaughter of Jan Claus, took care of the meeting house on Keizersgracht merely when she stopped paying the hire the Yearly Meeting in London had her evicted.[18] The Quaker presence disappeared from Dutch life by the early 1800s until reemerging in the 1920s, with Netherlands Yearly Meeting being established in 1931.[nineteen]

William Penn and settlement in colonial Pennsylvania [edit]

William Penn, a colonist who the rex owed money to, received ownership of Pennsylvania in 1681, which he tried to brand a "holy experiment" by a union of temporal and spiritual matters. Pennsylvania made guarantees of religious freedom, and kept them, attracting many Quakers and others. Quakers took political control just were bitterly split on the funding of military operations or defenses; finally they relinquished political power. They created a second "holy experiment" by extensive involvement in voluntary benevolent associations while remaining apart from government. Programs of civic activism included edifice schools, hospitals and asylums for the entire city. Their new tone was an admonishing moralism born from a feeling of crisis. Even more all-encompassing philanthropy was possible because of the wealth of the Quaker merchants based in Philadelphia.[xx]

The Friends had no ordained ministers and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. As a effect, they did not open any colleges in the colonial period, and did not bring together in founding the University of Pennsylvania. The major Quaker colleges were Haverford College (1833), Earlham College (1847), Swarthmore College (1864), and Bryn Mawr College (1885), all founded much afterward.[21]

Persecution in the New World [edit]

Title page of volume on Quaker persecution in New England

In 1657 some Quakers were able to find refuge to practise in Providence Plantations established by Roger Williams.[22] Other Quakers faced persecution in Puritan Massachusetts. In 1656 Mary Fisher and Ann Austin began preaching in Boston. They were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Lite. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned under terrible atmospheric condition, then deported.[23]

Some Quakers in New England were only imprisoned or banished. A few were also whipped or branded. Christopher Holder, for example, had his ear cut off. A few were executed by the Puritan leaders, usually for ignoring and defying orders of banishment. Mary Dyer was thus executed in 1660. Three other martyrs to the Quaker faith in Massachusetts were William Robinson, Marmaduke Stephenson, and William Leddra. These events are described by Edward Burrough in A Proclamation of the Distressing and Bang-up Persecution and Martyrdom of the People of God, called Quakers, in New-England, for the Worshipping of God (1661). Around 1667, the English language Quaker preachers Alice and Thomas Curwen, who had been busy in Rhode Island and New Jersey, were imprisoned in Boston under Massachusetts law and publicly flogged.[24]

In 1657 a group of Quakers from England landed in New Amsterdam. One of them, Robert Hodgson, preached to large crowds of people. He was arrested, imprisoned, and flogged. Governor Peter Stuyvesant issued a harsh ordinance, punishable by fine and imprisonment, against anyone found guilty of harboring Quakers. Some sympathetic Dutch colonists were able to become him released. Well-nigh immediately after the edict was released, Edward Hart, the town clerk in what is at present Flushing, New York, gathered his fellow citizens on Dec. 27, 1657 and wrote a petition to Stuyvesant, called the Flushing Remonstrance, citing the Flushing town lease of 1645, which promised liberty of conscience. Stuyvesant arrested Hart and the other official who presented the certificate to him, and he jailed two other magistrates who had signed the petition, and also forced the other signatories to recant. But Quakers continued to meet in Flushing. Stuyvesant arrested a farmer, John Bowne, in 1662 for holding illegal meetings in his dwelling and banished him from the colony; Bowne immediately went to Amsterdam to plead for the Quakers. Though the Dutch Westward India Company chosen Quakerism an "abominable organized religion", it nevertheless overruled Stuyvesant in 1663 and ordered him to "permit everyone to accept his own conventionalities".[25]

Eighteenth century [edit]

In 1691 George Fox died. Thus the Quaker movement went into the 18th century without one of its almost influential early leaders. Thanks to the Toleration Act of 1689, people in Nifty United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland were no longer criminals simply by being Friends.

During this time, other people began to recognize Quakers for their integrity in social and economic matters. Many Quakers went into manufacturing or commerce, because they were not allowed to earn academic degrees at that fourth dimension. These Quaker businessmen were successful, in function, because people trusted them. The customers knew that Quakers felt a strong confidence to set a fair price for appurtenances and not to haggle over prices. They besides knew that Quakers were committed to quality work, and that what they produced would be worth the price.

Some useful and popular products made past Quaker businesses at that time included fe and steel by Abraham Darby Two and Abraham Darby Iii and pharmaceuticals past William Allen. An early coming together house was set up up in Broseley, Shropshire by the Darbys.

In N America, Quakers, similar other religious groups, were involved in the migration to the frontier. Initially this involved moves south from Pennsylvania and New Jersey along the Great Railroad vehicle Road. Historic meeting houses such as the 1759 Hopewell Friends Meeting House in Frederick County, Virginia and Lynchburg, Virginia'southward 1798 South River Friends Meetinghouse stand equally testaments to the expanding borders of American Quakerism.[26] From Maryland and Virginia, Quakers moved to the Carolinas and Georgia. In later years, they moved to the Northwest Territory and farther west.

At the same time that Friends were succeeding in manufacturing and commerce and migrating to new territories, they were also becoming more concerned about social issues and becoming more active in lodge at large.

One such outcome was slavery. The Germantown (Pennsylvania) Monthly Meeting published their opposition to slavery in 1688, but abolitionism did not go universal among Quakers until the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting reached unity on the issue in 1754. Reaching unity (spiritual consensus) was a long and difficult process. William Penn himself owned slaves. Some Quaker businessmen had made their fortunes in Barbados or owned ships that worked the British/West Indies/American triangle. Simply gradually the reality of slavery took agree and the promotion by concerned members such as John Woolman in the early 18th century changed things. Woolman was a farmer, retailer, and tailor from New Jersey who became convinced that slavery was incorrect and published the widely read "John Woolman'south Periodical". He wrote: "...Slaves of this continent are oppressed, and their cries have reached the ears of the Most Loftier. Such are the purity and certainty of his judgments, that he cannot be partial to our favor." In general Quakers opposed mistreatment of slaves[27] [28] and promoted the teaching of Christianity and reading to them. Woolman argued that the entire exercise of buying, selling, and owning human beings was wrong in principle. Other Quakers started to agree and became very active in the abolitionism movement. Other Quakers who ministered against slavery were not and so moderate. Benjamin Lay would minister passionately and personally and once sprayed simulated blood on the congregation, a ministry building which got him disowned. Afterward initially finding understanding that they would purchase no slaves off the boats, the entire club came to unity (spiritual consensus) on the result in 1755, after which time no 1 could be a Quaker and own a slave. In 1790, one of the first documents received past the new Congress was an appeal by the Quakers (presented through Benjamin Franklin) to abolish slavery in the Us.

Another outcome that became a concern of Quakers was the treatment of the mentally ill. Tea merchant, William Tuke opened the Retreat at York in 1796. Information technology was a place where the mentally ill were treated with the dignity that Friends believe is inherent in all human beings. Most asylums at that time forced such people into deplorable conditions and did nothing to help them.

The Quakers' commitment to pacifism came under assault during the American Revolution, as many of those living in the thirteen colonies struggled with conflicting ideals of patriotism for the new U.s.a. and their rejection of violence. Despite this dilemma, a pregnant number still participated in some form, and in that location were many Quakers involved in the American Revolution.

By the late 18th century, Quakers were sufficiently recognized and accepted that the United States Constitution contained language specifically directed at Quaker citizens—in detail, the explicit allowance of "affirming", as opposed to "swearing" various oaths.

The abolition of slavery [edit]

Nearly Quakers did non oppose owning slaves when they start came to America. To nearly Quakers, "slavery was perfectly acceptable provided that slave owners attended to the spiritual and material needs of those they enslaved".[29] 70% of the leaders of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting owned slaves in the menstruum from 1681 to 1705; however, from 1688 some Quakers began to speak out confronting slavery.

John Blunston, Quaker pioneer founder of Darby Borough, Pennsylvania; and 12th Speaker of the PA Colonial Assembly; took part in an early action against slavery in 1715.

In The Friend, Vol. 28:309 there is text of a "minute made in 'that Quarterly Coming together held at Providence Meeting-house the first day of the Sixth month, 1715' ." It reads every bit follows "A weighty concern coming before the meeting concerning some Friends being yet in the practice of importing, buying and selling negroe slaves; later on some time spent in a solid and serious consideration thereof, it is the unanimous sense and judgment of this meeting, that Friends exist not concerned in the importing, ownership or selling of any negro slaves that shall exist imported in future; and that the aforementioned exist laid earlier the side by side Yearly Meeting desiring their concurrence therein. Signed past guild and on behalf of the Meeting, Caleb Pusey, Jno. Wright,Nico. Fairlamb, Jno. Blunsten"

Past 1756 just ten% of leaders of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting owned slaves.[thirty] Virginia was a bastion of slaveholding. In 1765, the Quaker minister John Griffith wrote that " the life of organized religion is almost lost where slaves are numerous..the practice existence every bit contrary to the spirit of Christianity as light is to darkness"

Ii other early prominent Friends to denounce slavery were Anthony Benezet and John Woolman. They asked the Quakers, "What thing in the world can exist washed worse towards the states, than if men should rob or steal usa abroad and sell us for slaves to strange countries".[31] [ verification needed ] In that aforementioned yr, a grouping of Quakers forth with some German Mennonites met at the meeting house in Germantown, Pennsylvania, to hash out why they were distancing themselves from slavery. Iv of them signed a certificate written by Francis Daniel Pastorius that stated, "To bring men hither, or to rob and sell them against their will, nosotros stand up against."[32] [ verification needed ] [ folio needed ]

From 1755 to 1776, the Quakers worked at freeing slaves, and became the first Western organization to ban slaveholding.[28] They likewise created societies to promote the emancipation of slaves.[33] [ verification needed ] From the efforts of the Quakers, Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were able to convince the Continental Congress to ban the importation of slaves into America as of December 1, 1775. Pennsylvania was the strongest anti-slavery country at the time, and with Franklin's assistance they led "The Pennsylvania Order for Promoting The Abolition of Slavery, The Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage, and for Improving the Status of the African Race" (Pennsylvania Abolition Society).[31] [ verification needed ] In November 1775, Virginia'due south purple governor announced that all slaves would be freed if they were willing to fight for United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland (Dunmore's Announcement). This encouraged George Washington to allow slaves to enlist every bit well, and so that they all did not try to run away and fight on the Royalist side to get their liberty (Black Patriot). Near five g African Americans served for the Continental Regular army and thus gained their freedom. Past 1792 states from Massachusetts to Virginia all had similar anti-slavery groups. From 1780 to 1804, slavery was largely abolished in all of New England, the Heart Atlantic states, and the North West territories.

The Southern states, withal, were still very prominent in keeping slavery running. Considering of this, an breezy network of safe houses and escape routes—called the Hugger-mugger Railroad—adult across the United States to get enslaved people out of America and into Canada (British North America) or the free states. The Quakers were a very prominent force [34] [35] in the Underground Railroad, and their efforts helped free many slaves. Immediately n of the Mason-Dixon line, the Quaker settlement of Chester County, Pennsylvania—one of the early on hubs of the Undercover Railroad—was considered a "hotbed of abolition". Yet, not all Quakers were of the aforementioned opinion regarding the Underground Railroad: because slavery was yet legal in many states, it was therefore illegal for anyone to aid a slave escape and gain liberty. Many Quakers, who saw slaves every bit equals, felt it was proper to help free slaves and thought that it was unjust to go on someone as a slave; many Quakers would "lie" to slave hunters when asked if they were keeping slaves in their firm, they would say "no" because in their mind in that location was no such affair as a slave. Other Quakers saw this as breaking the law and thereby disrupting the peace, both of which go confronting Quaker values thus breaking Quaker belief in being pacifistic. Furthermore, interest with the police force and the government was something from which the Quakers had tried to separate themselves. This divisiveness caused the germination of smaller, more than contained branches of Quakers, who shared similar beliefs and views.

Withal, in that location were many prominent Quakers who stuck to the belief that slavery was incorrect, and were fifty-fifty arrested for helping the slaves out and breaking the law. Richard Dillingham, a schoolhouse teacher from Ohio, was arrested considering he was found helping three slaves escape in 1848. Thomas Garrett had an Underground Railroad cease at his firm in Delaware and was constitute guilty in 1848 of helping a family of slaves escape. Garrett was also said to have helped and worked with Harriet Tubman, who was a very well-known slave who worked to help other slaves gain their liberty. Educator Levi Coffin and his wife Catherine were Quakers who lived in Indiana and helped the Undercover Railroad by hiding slaves in their house for over 21 years. They claimed to have helped 3,000 slaves proceeds their freedom.[32] [ verification needed ] [ page needed ] [36] Susan B. Anthony was also a Quaker, and did a lot of antislavery work manus in manus with her work with women's rights.

Nineteenth century [edit]

Quaker influence on lodge [edit]

During the 19th century, Friends continued to influence the globe around them. Many of the industrial concerns started by Friends in the previous century continued as detailed in Milligan'southward Biographical dictionary of British Quakers in commerce and industry, with new ones outset. Friends also continued and increased their work in the areas of social justice and equality. They made other contributions too in the fields of science, literature, fine art, law and politics.

In the realm of industry Edward Pease opened the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northern England in 1825. It was the outset modern railway in the world, and carried coal from the mines to the seaports. Henry and Joseph Rowntree owned a chocolate mill in York, England. When Henry died, Joseph took it over. He provided the workers with more than benefits than most employers of his twenty-four hours. He besides funded depression-price housing for the poor. John Cadbury founded another chocolate mill, which his sons George and Richard eventually took over. A third chocolate factory was founded by Joseph Storrs Fry in Bristol. The shipbuilder John Wigham Richardson was a prominent Newcastle upon Tyne Quaker. His role at the centre of the shipyard was ever open up to his workers for whom he cared greatly and he was a founder of the Workers' Chivalrous Trust in the region, (a forerunner to the trades' union motion). Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson, the builders of the RMS Mauretania, refused to build state of war ships on account of his pacifist beliefs.

Quakers actively promoted equal rights during this century likewise[ citation needed ]. As early as 1811, Elias Hicks published a pamphlet showing that slaves were "prize goods"—that is, products of piracy—and hence profiting from them violated Quaker principles; it was a curt stride from that position to refuse use of all products made from slave labour, the free produce move that won support among Friends and others just too proved divisive. Quaker women such as Lucretia Mott and Susan B. Anthony joined the movement to abolish slavery, moving them to cooperate politically with not-Quakers in working against the establishment. Somewhat equally a effect of their initial exclusion from abolitionist activities, they inverse their focus to the correct of women to vote and influence society. Thomas Garrett led in the movement to cancel slavery, personally assisting Harriet Tubman to escape from slavery and to coordinate the Underground Railroad. Richard Dillingham died in a Tennessee prison where he was incarcerated for trying to help some slaves escape. Levi Coffin was too an active abolitionist, helping thousands of escaped slaves migrate to Canada and opening a store for selling products made by former slaves.

Prison reform was another business of Quakers at that time. Elizabeth Fry and her brother Joseph John Gurney campaigned for more humane treatment of prisoners and for the abolition of the death sentence. They played a key role in forming the Association for the Improvement of the Female Prisoners in Newgate, which managed to better the living conditions of woman and children held at the prison. Their work raised concerns about the prison organization equally a whole, then that they were a factor backside Parliament eventually passing legislation to improve conditions further and decrease the number of capital crimes.

In the early days of the Society of Friends, Quakers were not allowed to become an advanced education. Eventually some did get opportunities to become to university and beyond, which meant that more and more Quakers could enter the diverse fields of science. Thomas Young an English Quaker, did experiments with optics, contributing much to the wave theory of light. He also discovered how the lens in the eye works and described astigmatism and formulated an hypothesis about the perception of color. Young was also involved in translating the Rosetta Stone. He translated the demotic text and began the process of understanding the hieroglyphics. Maria Mitchell was an astronomer who discovered a comet. She was also active in the abolitionism motility and the women's suffrage motion. Joseph Lister promoted the use of sterile techniques in medicine, based on Pasteur's piece of work on germs. Thomas Hodgkin was a pathologist who fabricated major breakthroughs in the field of anatomy. He was the starting time doctor to describe the type of lymphoma named afterwards him. An historian, he was also active in the movement to cancel slavery and to protect aboriginal people. John Dalton formulated the atomic theory of matter, among other scientific achievements.

Quakers were not apt to participate publicly in the arts. For many Quakers these things violated their commitment to simplicity and were idea too "worldly". Some Quakers, notwithstanding, are noted today for their creative work. John Greenleaf Whittier was an editor and a poet in the United States. Among his works were some poems involving Quaker history and hymns expressing his Quaker theology. He as well worked in the abolition motion. Edward Hicks painted religious and historical paintings in the naive style and Francis Frith was a British photographer, whose catalogue ran to many thousands of topographical views.

At first Quakers were barred past constabulary and their ain convictions from being involved in the arena of police force and politics. As time went on, a few Quakers in England and the United states did enter that loonshit. Joseph Pease was the son of Edward Pease mentioned above. He continued and expanded his father'due south business organisation. In 1832 he became the first Quaker elected to Parliament. Noah Haynes Swayne was the only Quaker to serve on the The states Supreme Court. He was an Acquaintance Justice from 1862 to 1881. He strongly opposed slavery, moving out of the slave-holding state of Virginia to the free state of Ohio in his young adult years.

Theological schisms [edit]

Quakers found that theological disagreements over doctrine and evangelism had left them divided into the Gurneyites, who questioned the applicability of early Quaker writings to the mod globe, and the conservative Wilburites. Wilburites not only held to the writings of Fob (1624–91) and other early Friends, they actively sought to bring not simply Gurneyites, only Hicksites, who had split off during the 1820s over antislavery and theological bug, back to orthodox Quaker conventionalities.[37] Apart from theology there were social and psychological patterns revealed past the divisions. The main groups were the growth-minded Gurneyites, Orthodox Wilburites, and reformist Hicksites. Their differences increased after the Ceremonious War (1861–65), leading to more than splintering. The Gurneyites became more evangelical, embraced Methodist-like revivalism and the Holiness Motion, and became probably the leading forcefulness in American Quakerism. They formally endorsed such radical innovations as the pastoral system. Neither the Hicksites nor Wilburites experienced such numerical growth. The Hicksites became more liberal and declined in number, while the Wilburites remained both orthodox and divided.[38]

During the Second Great Enkindling after 1839 Friends began to be influenced past the revivals sweeping the Us. Robert Pearsall Smith and his married woman Hannah Whitall Smith, Quakers from New Jersey, had a profound issue. They promoted the Wesleyan idea of Christian perfection, also known as holiness or sanctification, among Quakers and among diverse denominations. Their work inspired the formation of many new Christian groups. Hannah Smith was also involved in the movements for women's suffrage and for temperance.

Hicksites [edit]

The Society in Ireland, and later, the United States suffered a number of schisms during the 19th century. In 1827–28, the views and popularity of Elias Hicks resulted in a division within five-yearly meetings, Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. Rural Friends, who had increasingly chafed under the control of urban leaders, sided with Hicks and naturally took a stand against potent subject area in doctrinal questions. Those who supported Hicks were tagged as "Hicksites", while Friends who opposed him were labeled "Orthodox". The latter had more adherents overall, but were plagued past subsequent splintering. The merely sectionalization the Hicksites experienced was when a small group of upper-class and reform-minded Progressive Friends of Longwood, Pennsylvania, emerged in the 1840s; they maintained a precarious position for about a century.[39]

Gurneyites [edit]

In the early 1840s the Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode Island. Gurney, troubled by the example of the Hicksite separation, emphasized Scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit as primary, and worked to prevent the dilution of the Friends tradition of Spirit-led ministry building. After privately criticizing Gurney in correspondence to sympathetic Friends, Wilbur was expelled from his yearly coming together in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Probably the best known Orthodox Friend was the poet and abolitionist editor John Greenleaf Whittier. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite–Gurneyite separations occurred.[forty]

Starting in the late 19th century, many American Gurneyite Quakers, led by Dougan Clark Jr., adopted the apply of paid pastors, planned sermons, revivals, hymns and other elements of Protestant worship services. They left behind the onetime "plain style".[41] This type of Quaker meeting is known as a "programmed meeting". Worship of the traditional, silent variety is chosen an "unprogrammed meeting", although in that location is some variation on how the unprogrammed meetings adhere strictly to the lack of programming. Some unprogrammed meetings may have as well allocated a period of hymn-singing or other activity every bit part of the full period of worship, while others maintain the tradition of avoiding all planned activities. (See also Joel Bean.)

Beaconites [edit]

For the most function, Friends in Britain were strongly evangelical in doctrine and escaped these major separations, though they corresponded but with the Orthodox and more often than not ignored the Hicksites.[42]

The Beaconite Controversy arose in England from the book A Beacon to the Society of Friends, published in 1835 by Isaac Crewdson. He was a Recorded Minister in the Manchester Meeting. The controversy arose in 1831 when doctrinal differences amongst the Friends culminated in the wintertime of 1836–1837 with the resignation of Isaac Crewdson and 48 young man members of the Manchester Meeting. About 250 others left in various localities in England, including some prominent members. A number of these joined themselves to the Plymouth Brethren and brought influences of simplicity of worship to that gild. Those notable amongst the Plymouthists who were former Quakers included John Eliot Howard of Tottenham and Robert Mackenzie Beverley.

Native Americans [edit]

The Quakers were involved in many of the great reform movements of the outset half of the 19th century. Afterward the Civil State of war they won over President Grant to their ideals of a just policy toward the American Indians, and became deeply involved in Grant's "Peace Policy". Quakers were motivated by high ideals, played downwardly the function of conversion to Christianity, and worked well adjacent with the Indians. They had been highly organized and motivated past the anti-slavery crusade, and subsequently the Civil War were poised to expand their energies to include both ex-slaves and the western tribes. They had Grant's ear and became the chief instruments for his peace policy. During 1869–85, they served equally appointed agents on numerous reservations and superintendencies in a mission centered on moral uplift and transmission training. Their ultimate goal of acculturating the Indians to American civilisation was non reached considering of frontier country hunger and Congressional patronage politics.[43]

Twentieth-century developments [edit]

During the 20th century, Quakerism was marked by movements toward unity, but at the terminate of the century Quakers were more sharply divided than ever. By the time of the First World War, almost all Quakers in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and many in the United States establish themselves committed to what came to be called "liberalism", which meant primarily a religion that de-emphasized corporate statements of theology and was characterized past its accent on social action and pacifism. Hence when the ii Philadelphia and New York Yearly Meetings, one Hicksite, one Orthodox, united in 1955—to be followed in the next decade by the two in Baltimore Yearly Coming together—they came together on the basis of a shared liberalism.[ citation needed ] As time wore on and the implication of this liberal change became more apparent, lines of division between various groups of Friends became more than accentuated.[ commendation needed ]

World War I at beginning produced an endeavor toward unity, embodied in the creation of the American Friends Service Commission in 1917 by Orthodox Friends, led by Rufus Jones and Henry Cadbury. A Friends Service Committee, as an agency of London Yearly Coming together, had already been created in Britain to help Quakers there bargain with bug of military service; information technology continues today, later on numerous name changes, as Quaker Peace & Social Witness. Envisioned equally a service outlet for careful objectors that could describe support from across diverse yearly meetings, the AFSC began losing back up from more evangelical Quakers as early on as the 1920s and served to emphasize the differences between them, but prominent Friends such as Herbert Hoover continued to offering information technology their public back up. Many Quakers from Oregon, Ohio, and Kansas became alienated from the Five Years Coming together (afterward Friends United Meeting), considering it infected with the kind of theological liberalism that Jones exemplified; Oregon Yearly Meeting withdrew in 1927.[44] That same year, xi evangelicals met in Cheyenne, Wyoming, to plan how to resist the influence of liberalism, but depression and state of war prevented another gathering for 20 years, until later on the end of the 2nd globe war.[ citation needed ]

To overcome such divisions, liberal Quakers organized so-chosen worldwide conferences of Quakers in 1920 in London and again in 1937 at Swarthmore and Haverford Colleges in Pennsylvania, simply they were too liberal and too expensive for most evangelicals to attend.[ citation needed ] A more than successful effort at unity was the Friends Committee on National Legislation, originating during Globe War II in Washington, D.C., every bit a pioneering Quaker lobbying unit. In 1958 the Friends Earth Committee for Consultation was organized to form a neutral basis where all branches of the Society of Friends could come up together, consider common problems, and go to know ane some other; information technology held triennial conferences that met in various parts of the earth, simply it had not plant a way to involve very many grassroots Quakers in its activities.[ citation needed ] One of its agencies, created during the Cold War and known equally Right Sharing of World Resources, collects funds from Quakers in the "first globe" to finance small cocky-help projects in the "Third World", including some supported past Evangelical Friends International. Beginning in 1955 and continuing for a decade, three of the yearly meetings divided by the Hicksite separation of 1827, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York, as well equally Canadian Yearly Coming together, reunited.[ citation needed ]

Disagreements between the various Quaker groups, Friends United Meeting, Friends General Conference, Evangelical Friends International, and Conservative yearly meetings, involved both theological and more than physical social issues. FGC, founded in 1900[45] and centered primarily in the Due east, along the Due west coast, and in Canada, tended to exist oriented toward the liberal end of the political spectrum, was mostly unprogrammed, and aligned itself closely with the American Friends Service Committee. By the last part of the century it had taken a stiff position in favor of aforementioned-sex marriage, was supportive of gay rights, and usually favored a woman's right to choose an abortion. Its membership tended to exist professional and centre class or higher.[ commendation needed ]

Rooted in the Midwest, especially Indiana, and Northward Carolina, FUM was historically more rural and minor-town in its demographics. The Friends churches which formed part of this body were predominantly programmed and pastoral. Though a minority of its yearly meetings (New York, New England, Baltimore, Southeastern and Canada) were also affiliated with Friends General Conference and over the decades became more theologically liberal and predominantly unprogrammed in worship style, the theological position of the majority of its constituent yearly meetings continues to be often similar in flavor to the Protestant Christian mainstream in Indiana and North Carolina. In 1960, a theological seminary, Earlham School of Religion, was founded in FUM's heartland—Richmond, Indiana—to offer ministerial training and religious instruction.[46] The seminary soon came to enroll significant numbers of unprogrammed Friends, as well equally Friends from pastoral backgrounds.[ citation needed ]

EFI was staunchly evangelical and by the end of the century had more members converted through its missionary endeavors abroad than in the United States; Southwest Friends Church illustrated the group'south migrate away from traditional Quaker do, permitting its member churches to practice the outward ordinances of the Lord'southward Supper and baptism. On social issues its members exhibited strong contempt toward homosexuality and enunciated a pro-life position on ballgame. At century's finish, Bourgeois Friends held onto only three small yearly meetings, in Ohio, Iowa, and North Carolina, with Friends from Ohio arguably the about traditional. In Britain and Europe, where institutional unity and nearly universal unprogrammed worship style were maintained, these distinctions did not use, nor did they in Latin America and Africa, where evangelical missionary action predominated.[ commendation needed ]

In the 1960s and later, these categories were challenged by a mostly cocky-educated Friend, Lewis Benson, a New Bailiwick of jersey printer by grooming, a theologian by vocation. Immersing himself in the corpus of early on Quaker writings, he made himself an say-so on George Fox and his message. In 1966, Benson published Cosmic Quakerism, a small book that sought to move the Club of Friends to what he insisted was a strongly pro-Play tricks position of authentic Christianity, entirely separate from theological liberalism, churchly denominationalism, or rural isolation. He created the New Foundation Fellowship, which blazed along for a decade or so, but had about disappeared as an effective group by the terminate of the century.[ commendation needed ]

By that time, the differences between Friends were quite articulate, to each other if not e'er to outsiders. Theologically, a pocket-size minority of Friends among the "liberals" expressed discomfort with theistic understandings of the Divine, while more than evangelical Friends adhered to a more biblical worldview. Periodical attempts to institutionally reorganize the disparate Religious Society of Friends into more theologically congenial organizations took place, but more often than not failed. By the beginning of the 21st century, Friends United Coming together, equally the middle ground, was suffering from these efforts, but all the same remained in existence, fifty-fifty if it did not flourish. In its home base of operations of yearly meetings in Indiana especially, it lost numerous churches and members, both to other denominations and to the evangelicals.[ citation needed ]

Quakers in United kingdom and the Eastern United States embarked on efforts in the field of adult education, creating 3 schools with term-long courses, calendar week-end activities, and summertime programs. Woodbrooke College began in 1903 at the old home of chocolate magnate George Cadbury in Birmingham, England, and afterwards became associated with the University of Birmingham, while Pendle Colina, in the Philadelphia suburb of Wallingford, did not open until 1930. Earlier, offset in 1915 and standing for near a decade, the Woolman School had been created by Philadelphia Hicksites near Swarthmore Higher; its head, Elbert Russell, a midwestern recorded minister, tried unsuccessfully to maintain information technology, but it concluded in the belatedly 1920s. All three sought to educate adults for the kind of lay leadership that the founders Society of Friends relied upon. Woodbrooke and Pendle Colina still maintain enquiry libraries and resources.[ commendation needed ]

During the 20th century, ii Quakers, Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, both from the Western evangelical wing, were elected to serve equally presidents of the United States, thus achieving more secular political ability than any Friend had enjoyed since William Penn.[ citation needed ]

Kindertransport [edit]

In 1938–1939, just prior to the outbreak of the Second Earth War, 10,000 European Jewish children were given temporary resident visas for the U.k., in what became known as the Kindertransport. This immune these children to escape the Holocaust. American Quakers played a major role in pressuring the British government to supply these visas. The Quakers chaperoned the Jewish children on the trains, and cared for many of them in one case they arrived in Great britain.[47]

State of war Rescue Operations, and The Ane G Children [edit]

Before and during the Second Globe War, the Quakers, often working with the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee or Œuvre de secours aux enfants (OSE), helped in the rescue from Europe of mainly Jewish families of refugees, in their flight finally to America. But in some cases, merely the children could escape—these mainly Jewish children fled unaccompanied, leaving their parents behind, by and large to be murdered by the Nazis. Such children are part of the 1 M Children, actually numbering nearly 1400.[ commendation needed ]

Costa rica [edit]

In 1951 a group of Quakers, objecting to the military conscription, emigrated from the The states to Costa Rica and settled in what was to get Monteverde. The Quakers founded a cheese factory and a Friends' schoolhouse, and in an endeavour to protect the expanse'due south watershed, purchased much of the land that now makes up the Monteverde Reserve. The Quakers take played a major function in the development of the community.[48]

See also [edit]

  • List of Quakers

References [edit]

  1. ^ Christian Scholar'due south Review, Volume 27. Hope College. 1997. p. 205. This was particularly true of proto-evangelical movements like the Quakers, organized equally the Religious Society of Friends past George Fox in 1668 as a grouping of Christians who rejected clerical say-so and taught that the Holy Spirit guided
  2. ^ a b c d e f chiliad h i j 1000 Manual of Faith and Practice of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. 2018. p. two.
  3. ^ Ingle, H. Larry (1996). First Among Friends: George Pull a fast one on and the Creation of Quakerism.
  4. ^ Damrosch, Leo (1996). The Sorrows of the Quaker Jesus: James Nayler and the Puritan Crackdown on the Free Spirit, pp. 66, 221
  5. ^ Moore, Rosemary (2000). The Light in Their Consciences: Faith, Practices, and Personalities in Early on British Quakerism, (1646–1666).
  6. ^ Moore, Rosemary The Low-cal in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, 1646–1666, Academy Park, PA: Pennsylvania Country Academy Printing (2000) pp. 224–26.
  7. ^ Orlando Project site: Retrieved twenty March 2012.
  8. ^ Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, eds: The Feminist Companion to Literature in English (London: Batsford, 1990), entry on Dorcas Dole, p. 302.
  9. ^ Taylor, Kay Due south. (2001). "The Role of Quaker Women in the Seventeenth Century, and the Experiences of the Wiltshire Friends." Southern History 23: 10–29. ISSN 0142-4688
  10. ^ George Fox's Imprisonment
  11. ^ Charles 2, 1662: An Human activity for preventing the Mischeifs and Dangers that may ascend by certaine Persons called Quakers and others refusing to take lawfull Oaths, Statutes of the Realm: book five: 1628–fourscore. 1819. pp. 350, 351. Retrieved 2013-x-08 .
  12. ^ Ingle, First Among Friends, 212–14
  13. ^ Cosmic Encyclopedia 1917, Entry on Gild of Friends
  14. ^ Lodge, Richard The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William Three 1660–1702 (1910). p. 268
  15. ^ Hull, William I. (1938). The Rise of Quakerism in Amsterdam, 1655–1665. Swarthmore College. Retrieved 2013-02-24 .
  16. ^ a b Hull, William Isaac (1970). William Penn and the Dutch Quaker Migration to Pennsylvania. Genealogical Publishing Com. ISBN9780806304328 . Retrieved 2013-02-24 .
  17. ^ British Travellers in Kingdom of the netherlands During the Stuart Catamenia: Edward Browne and John Locke As Tourists in the United Provinces. Brill. 1993. p. 203. ISBN9789004094826 . Retrieved 2013-02-24 .
  18. ^ Kannegieter, J. Z. (1972). Geschiedenis van de Vroegere Quackergemeenschap te Amsterdam. Scheltema & Holkema. p. 326. ISBN9789060608890 . Retrieved 2013-02-24 .
  19. ^ Handbook of the Religious Club of Friends. 1952. pp. 38, twoscore. Retrieved 2013-02-25 .
  20. ^ Illick, Joseph Eastward. (1976). Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. p. 225.
  21. ^ Yount, David (2007). How the Quakers invented America. pp. 83–4
  22. ^ The Colonies Rhode Island (Est. 1636)
  23. ^ Baltzell, Edward Digby (1996). Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia. p. 86.
  24. ^ Mullett, Michael (2004). "Curwen, Thomas (c. 1610–1680)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, UK: OUP) Retrieved 17 November 2015
  25. ^ Jackson, Kenneth T. (December 27, 2007). "A Colony With a Conscience". The New York Times.
  26. ^ Harold Wickliffe Rose. The Colonial House of Worship in America. New York: Hastings House, Publishers, 1963, p. 518.
  27. ^ "Quakers (Society of Friends)". The Abolition Project. 2009.
  28. ^ a b Moore Mueller, Anne (2008). "John Woolman". web.tricolib.brynmawr.edu.
  29. ^ Wood, Betty Slavery in colonial America, 1619–1776 AltaMira Press (2005) p. 14.
  30. ^ Fischer, David Hackett Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America Oxford University Press (1989) p. 601.
  31. ^ a b (Zuber 1993, iv)
  32. ^ a b Ralph 2008
  33. ^ (Marietta 1991, 894–896)
  34. ^ Huffman, Jeanette. Starbuck, Waldschmidt, & Huffman Family of Bangor, Michigan. p. 59. ISBN9781387103201.
  35. ^ "THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD". Indiana Historical Bureau.
  36. ^ Levi Coffin (1880). Reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the Reputed President of the Underground Railroad: Being a Brief History of the Labors of a Lifetime in Behalf of the Slave, with the Stories of Numerous Fugitives, who Gained Their Freedom Through His Instrumentality, and Many Other Incidents. Robert Clarke & Visitor. pp. 671, 705.
  37. ^ Hamm, Thomas D. (2004). "'New Light on Old Ways': Gurneyites, Wilburites, and the Early Friends". Quaker History. 93 (one): 53–67. doi:10.1353/qkh.2004.0020. JSTOR 41947529. S2CID 162136169.
  38. ^ Hamm, Thomas D. (2002). "The Divergent Paths of Iowa Quakers in the Nineteenth Century". Annals of Iowa. 61 (2): 125–150. doi:10.17077/0003-4827.10564.
  39. ^ Doherty, Robert W. (1967). The Hicksite Separation A Sociological Analysis of Religious Schism in Early on Nineteenth Century America.
  40. ^ A Short History of Bourgeois Friends
  41. ^ Kostlevy, William (2009). Historical Lexicon of the Holiness Move. Scarecrow Press. p. 68. ISBN9780810863187.
  42. ^ For an account of how British Friends (London Yearly Meeting) transformed from evangelical to liberal Christian thinking, meet Thomas C. Kennedy, British Quakerism 1860–1920: the transformation of a religious customs (2001)
  43. ^ Illick, Joseph Due east. (1971). "'Some of Our Best Friends Are Indians...': Quaker Attitudes and Actions Regarding the Western Indians during the Grant Administration". Western Historical Quarterly. ii (three): 283–294. doi:10.2307/967835. JSTOR 967835.
  44. ^ "Historical Summary" from Mid-America Yearly Meeting's Organized religion and Do. Archived March ten, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ "Locations of FGC Conferences and Gatherings" Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine, FGC website.
  46. ^ "Earlham School of Religion website". Archived from the original on 2010-05-29. Retrieved 2010-08-02 .
  47. ^ Eve Nussbaum Soumerai and Carol D. Schulz, A voice from the Holocaust (2003) p. 53.
  48. ^ Mara Vorhees and Matthew Firestone, Costa Rica (2006) p. 187
Further reading
  • Abbott, Margery Post et al. Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers). (2003). 432 pp.
  • Bacon, Margaret Promise. "Quakers and Colonization," Quaker History, 95 (Leap 2006), 26–43. JSTOR 41947575.
  • Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost. The Quakers. (1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies online edition
  • Barbour, Hugh. The Quakers in Puritan England (1964).
  • Benjamin, Philip. Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920 (1976),
  • Braithwaite, William C. The Beginnings of Quakerism (1912); revised past Henry J. Cadbury (1955) online edition
  • Braithwaite, William C. Second Period of Quakerism (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
  • Brock, Peter. Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom (1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.
  • Bronner, Edwin B. William Penn's Holy Experiment (1962)
  • Connerley, Jennifer. "Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the Us, 1850–1920." PhD dissertation U. of N Carolina, Chapel Colina 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(ii): 600-A. DA3207363 online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
  • Dandelion, Pink. The Quakers: A Very Brusque Introduction (2008). ISBN 978-0-19-920679-7.
  • Davies, Adrian. The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725. (2000). 261 pp.
  • Doherty, Robert. The Hicksite Separation (1967), uses the new social history to enquire who joined which side
  • Dunn, Mary Maples. William Penn: Politics and Censor (1967).
  • Frost, J. William. The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life.
  • Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade confronting Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," Quaker History 67 (1978): 42–58. JSTOR 41946850.
  • Hamm, Thomas. The Quakers in America. (2003). 293 pp., strong assay of current state of affairs, with brief history
  • Hamm, Thomas. The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907 (1988), looks at the effect of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
  • Hamm, Thomas D. Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997. (1997). 448 pp.
  • Hewitt, Nancy. Women's Activism and Social Change (1984).
  • Illick, Joseph E. Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. 1976. online edition
  • Ingle, H. Larry Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation (1986)
  • Ingle, H. Larry. Outset among Friends: George Fox and the Cosmos of Quakerism. (1994). 407 pp.
  • Ingle, H. Larry. Nixon's Offset Cover-upward: The Religious Life of a Quaker President. (2015). 272 pp.
  • James, Sydney. A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America (1963), a broad ranging written report that remains the best history in America before 1800.
  • Jones, Rufus 1000., Amelia Chiliad. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless. Quakers in the American Colonies (1911), history to 1775 online edition
  • Jones, Rufus M. Afterwards Periods of Quakerism, 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
  • Jones, Rufus Thousand. The Story of George Pull a fast one on (1919) 169 pages online edition
  • Jones, Rufus M. A Service of Love in State of war Time: American Friends Relief Piece of work in Europe, 1917–1919 (1922) online edition
  • Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865," Ceremonious War History, Vol. 53, 2007 doi:10.1353/cwh.2007.0016. online edition
  • Jordan, Ryan. Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865. (2007). 191 pp.
  • Kashatus, William C. A Virtuous Education of Youth: William Penn and the Founding of Philadelphia'due south Schools (1997).
  • Kashatus, William C. Conflict of Conviction: A Reappraisal of Quaker Interest in the American Revolution (1990).
  • Kashatus, William C. Abraham Lincoln, the Quakers and the Civil War: "A Trial of Faith and Principle" (2010).
  • Kennedy, Thomas C. British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Customs. (2001). 477 pp.
  • Larson, Rebecca. Daughters of Calorie-free: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775. (1999). 399 pp.
  • LeShana, James David. "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial Due north Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(v): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
  • Milligan, Edward The Biographical dictionary of British Quakers in commerce and industry, 1775–1920, Sessions of York, 2007. ISBN 978-1-85072-367-7.
  • Moore, Rosemary. The Calorie-free in Their Consciences: Religion, Practices, and Personalities in Early British Quakerism, (1646–1666), Pennsylvania State Academy Press, 2000. ISBN 0-271-01988-3.
  • Nash, Gary. Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726 (1968).
  • Punshon, John. Portrait in Grey: A brusk history of the Quakers. (Quaker Dwelling Service, 1984).
  • Rasmussen, One Marie Bak. A History of the Quaker Motility in Africa. (1994). 168 pp.
  • Russell, Elbert. The History of Quakerism (1942). online edition
  • Ryan, James Emmett. Imaginary Friends: Representing Quakers in American Civilisation, 1650–1950. (2009). ISBN 978-0-299-23174-3.
  • Smuck, Harold. Friends in East Africa (Richmond, Indiana: 1987).
  • Trueblood, D. Elton The People Chosen Quakers (1966).
  • Tolles, Frederick B. Meeting House and Counting House (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia.
  • Tolles, Frederick B. Quakers and the Atlantic Culture (1960).
  • Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art," Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 94, 1981. doi:10.2307/540122. JSTOR 540122. online edition
  • Walvin, James. The Quakers: Coin and Morals. (1997). 243 pp.
  • Yarrow, Clarence H. The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation (1979), for post–1945
Primary sources
  • Gummere, Amelia, ed. The Journal and Essays of John Woolman (1922) online edition
  • Jones, Rufus M., ed. The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography online edition
  • Mott, Lucretia Coffin. Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott. edited by Beverly Wilson Palmer, U. of Illinois Printing, 2002. 580 pp.
  • Due west, Jessamyn, ed. The Quaker Reader (1962, reprint 1992) – drove of essays past Trick, Penn, and other notable Quakers

External links [edit]

  • Quaker Heritage Press Reprints and on-line versions of classic Quaker works with links to works at other websites.
  • Quaker Information Eye
  • A Quaker Page at the Street Corner Society
  • Article by Bill Samuel on the Beginnings of Quakerism in quakerinfo.com
  • Early Modern Quaker Texts Post-Reformation Digital Library

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Quakers

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